1. Understanding main points and supporting details
2. Understanding organization of texts
3. Deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar lexical items
4. Understanding stated information
5. Understanding implied information
6. Understanding conceptual meaning
7. Understanding the communicative value of sentences and utterances (functions)
8. Understanding relations within the sentence
9. Understanding cohesion between parts of a text (lexical and grammatical)
10. Understanding coherence of text
11. Interpreting texts by going outside it
12. Recognizing indicators in discourse
13. Summarize the main idea of the text
14. Skimming
15. Scanning to locate specifically required information
16. Transcoding information to diagrammatic display
17. Understanding the tone
18. Outlining the text
Critical Comprehension Questions
Critical comprehension questions require you to use inferences, implications, tone, relationships, and arguments to find the answers. Critical comprehension questions are sometimes referred to as "reading between the lines" questions.
There are nine types of critical comprehension questions. The nine types of critical comprehension questions are:
1. Recognizing Purpose.
2. Identifying Organizational Patterns.
3. Recognizing Relationships Between Sentences.
4. Recognizing Relationships Within Sentences.
5. Recognizing the Author’s Tone.
6. Recognizing Fact and Opinion.
7. Detecting Bias.
8. Identifying Logical Inferences and Conclusions.
9. Recognizing Valid and Invalid Arguments.
Recognizing Purpose
Finding the purpose in a passage is closely related to finding the main idea.
The main idea of a passage reflects the author’s purpose in writing the passage. By identifying the main idea, you will be better able to distinguish between those purposes that are found in the passage and those that are not.
Unfortunately, authors rarely state their purposes in a concise statement such as: "My dual purpose in this passage is to persuade you to buy my invention while entertaining you with amusing stories about its development." Authors usually imply their purposes and you must infer them from the passage. More than one purpose may be present in a passage. Read the question and the passage very carefully to ensure you correctly respond to the question you are asked.
Five Purpose Categories
1. To inform
2. To persuade
3. To narrate
4. To describe
5. To entertain
1. To inform
These passages attempt to teach or explain something to you. The passage will explain a point, a certain process, or a concept. Usually, when a passage’s purpose is to inform, you will find objective language and facts. The passage should not contain opinions or bias language.
2. To persuade
These passages attempt to convince the reader, to argue a position, or to prove a point. In this type of passage, authors are trying to get your support for their position or belief. They want you to aGREe with them and will word their passages accordingly.
Since the purpose is to persuade you, the passages usually contain a mixture of facts and opinions. The opinions may be the author’s own—or those of an outside source or expert. BE CAREFUL when reading these passages! An opinion is still an opinion even when an expert or well-known authority states it! If the author is trying to convince you to believe or support a viewpoint, then the passage’s purpose is to persuade!
3. To narrate
These passages recount a sequence of events or tell a story to the reader. The events in the passage may be either fact or fiction. Since the author is telling you about an event or about a series of events, MOST of these passages are in some form of time order.
Remember, not all passages that narrate are told in the first person. Regardless of whether or not the authors are telling you about their own personal story, the sequential nature of the retelling will be a clue that you are reading a passage that’s purpose is to narrate.
4. To describe
These passages make some appeal to your five senses—hearing, sight, smell, touch, or taste. In these passages, you will often be given information that will form a picture or an image of the topics discussed.
When passages are written to describe something, they contain information about the physical properties or the characteristics of the "something" they are describing. For example, if an author wrote a passage to describe a new building on campus the passage might contain information about the building’s construction, the color, the location, the furnishings, the decorating style, the landscaping, and much more.
5. To entertain
These passages are supposed to amuse the reader. The passages are written to be humorous and entertaining. Sometimes authors use humor when they dismiss an opposing viewpoint or while they are telling a narrative. It is your job to determine if the entertainment in the passage is the author’s primary purpose. Remember that there are many forms of humor, and although you may not find the passage to be "humorous" or "entertaining" you must read these passages critically and think about the author’s purpose for writing.
Identifying Organizational Patterns
When you are trying to comprehend a passage or an essay it is helpful to examine how the author arranges the sentences to convey his/her message. Authors want readers to comprehend the message and ideas in a passage, so they will organize the information in a way to make it clear and easily understood. This method of organizing and arranging sentences within an essay or passage is referred to as an "organizational pattern." Organizational patterns are the way authors arrange and organize their text.
I. Patterns that List
II. Patterns that Explain
III. Patterns that Analyze
Identifying Organizational Patterns
I. Patterns that List
• Simple listing
In this pattern, the author presents facts, detail, examples, cases, ideas, and other support in list form. This organizational pattern resembles a grocery list, since it contains items that are not in any particular order. It is very important to remember that in the simple listing organizational pattern the order of the items is not important for the author\'s meaning or argument to be understood.
• Order of importance
In this pattern, the details and examples of the passage are presented in a very specific order. The author organizes the details either so the most important detail comes first or last, depending upon the author\'s writing technique and style.
• Time order
This pattern is also referred to as "chronological order." In this pattern, the author presents the events of a story or the details of a passage in the order in which they occurred in time.
• Sequence/Process
In this pattern, the author presents a list of details in a very specific order. Unlike the "order of importance" organizational pattern, the sequence/process pattern relies on the presentation of events, stages, or steps that must occur in a specific and definite order for the reader to properly comprehend the information. The sequence/process organizational pattern is commonly thought of as the "direction" pattern, since it is often used by authors to describe the detailed steps needed to complete a task. This organizational pattern may also be used by authors to explain processes that change over time, as in Psychology texts that refer to childhood development stages.
• Spatial/Place Order
In this pattern, the author describes the location of items in relation to each other and to a larger context. In spatial/place order organizational patterns, the author creates a visual picture that permits you to \'see\' where various details exist in relation to other details. For example, when an author introduces you to a setting in a novel by describing the main house in the novel, its exact location in the yard, the location of specific trees, and the position of a favorite tree swing, the author is using spatial/place order.
• Summary
In this pattern, the author condenses the important points from a longer selection or essay. A summary organizational pattern can be used in a brief or lengthy summary passage, depending upon density of the original material being summarized and the author\'s writing style.
Identifying Organizational Patterns
II. Patterns that Explain
• Example/Illustration
This pattern is also known as "generalization and example." In this pattern a general statement is made and then supported with multiple examples, with specific cases, or with an extended illustration. When an author illustrates a point, he/she shows you the point by providing specific examples and details. For example, if an author were writing about gun safety in homes with children, he/she would illustrate the importance of locked gun cabinets by presenting specific cases where children were injured by guns their parents owned and stored in unlocked locations.
• Clarification
This organizational pattern is also known as "statement and clarification" or "generalization and clarification". In this organizational pattern uses repetition to simplify or more fully explain certain terms, ideas, or concepts. The clarification organizational pattern attempts to clarify the author\'s point by examining its meaning two, three, four, or more times.
• Definition
In this organizational pattern, the author attempts to clarify a term or phrase with a brief or an extended definition.
More than one type of definition may be used in this organizational pattern. The author may use a standard dictionary-style definition (denotation) or he/she may focus on the word\'s connotation. Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, while connotation refers to the shades of meaning associated with a word.
The author\'s task when writing using the definition organizational pattern is to focus on the features that make the term or concept distinctly apart from other similar terms and concepts.
• Description
In this organizational pattern the author uses language that indicates the size, shape, color, mass, texture, length, and so forth. BE CAREFUL!!! In order to make a passage more interesting, authors usually use some description in their writing. It is you task to determine if the passage or paragraph you are referred to by the CLAST question is using description as its primary organizational pattern.
Identifying Organizational Patterns
III. Patterns that Analyze
• Division/Classification
In the division organizational pattern, the author takes apart a whole by dividing it into sections for further explanation. Division is similar to analysis, since the author is breaking down a larger entity to examine the component parts.
In the classification organizational pattern, the author takes the division organizational pattern one step further. In the classification organizational pattern the individual sections and categorizes this individual
• Cause/Effect
In the cause/effect organizational pattern the author explains why or how things happen and what the result of these actions may is or might be. The cause is the source of a certain outcome. The cause is the reason or the motive behind what results. The effect is this outcome or result. The effect is the consequence of the cause that preceded it.
• Comparison
In this organizational pattern the author explains and highlights similarities between ideas, concepts, and examples.
• Contrast
In this organizational pattern the author explains and highlights the differences between ideas, concepts, and examples.
• Compare/Contrast
To clarify, it is important to note that on the compare and the contrast organizational patterns are often joined together. When an author weighs alternatives, or takes two choices, objects, or ideas and considers their similarities and differences, the organizational pattern is compare/contrast.
Recognizing Relationships Between Sentences
When you are recognizing relationships between sentences, you are identifying the ways authors connect their ideas between their sentences.
Authors can explicitly tell you what this link is by using transition words.
OR
Authors can implicitly link ideas in their sentences and the reader
must figure out what the relationship is between the sentences.
There are nine ways authors can create relationships between sentences.
1. Addition
2. Clarification
3. Comparison
4. Contrast
5. Example
6. Location or Spatial Order
7. Cause and effect
8. Summary
9. Time
1. Addition
In addition relationships, authors link elements between their sentences by adding more items and ideas without making one sentence dependent upon another. One idea or item is not emphasized as being more important than others. While both sentences remain equally important and equally stressed, there may be a sense of repetition since similar information is added to the passage by both sentences.
Example: Successful students complete all their lessons and assignments, submit all their papers and projects, and keep up with all readings. They also prepare for tests by properly studying their notes and assignments in advance.
2. Clarification
Clarification between sentences occurs when authors restate their point to promote understanding. The second sentence will restate a point made earlier in different terms, to help the reader comprehend the concept.
Example: Our club resources are rapidly depleting. In fact, if our spending continues at this rate we will have only twenty dollars in our account by next month.
3. Comparison
Authors make comparisons when two ideas or items have something in common. The author makes a comparison between sentences containing these two ideas or items so the reader recognizes the similarities between them.
Example: As Internet access became prevalent in the 1990s, students began using the Internet as a research tool. Likewise, students in the early 1900s had to adapt to the "new" research innovations of microfiche and microfilm.
4. Contrast
Authors create a contrast between two sentences when these sentences display differences between them. One way of demonstrating a contrasting relationship is to use sentences that contradict one another.
Example: Sam wrote her final paper a week early and then carefully proofread and edited it. However, Jen wrote her final paper hours before it was due and did not have time to even spell check it.
5. Example
Authors include examples in their sentences to provide a more concrete instance of an idea, event, or general statement they have made. Examples are meant to make general statements more specific.
Example: Effective time management requires some organization and planning. For example, you need to create a weekly schedule of events, you need to keep track of any additional assignments and papers and add them to your schedule, and you need to adjust your schedule as conflicts arise.
6. Location or Spatial Order
When authors relate one or more items or objects to each other or to the surrounding space, they are using location/spatial order. Often authors will use prepositional words to describe how items relate to one another when using location/spatial order.
Example: The Registrar\'s Office is next to the Admissions Office, on the first floor of that building. If you enter through those doors, you will see the form you need in a cabinet on your left.
7. Cause and Effect
If one event precedes another event and results in a specific outcome, then the initial event is the "cause" and the specific outcome is the "effect." When authors use cause and effect structure, the cause must logically precede the effect.
Example: Myra forgot to bring her disk to the computer lab. As a result, she had to borrow one from her friend so she could save her work.
8. Summary
Authors often use summary structure to condense the main points and essential elements of their passage. The summary sentences focus on the most important points of the passage.
Example: The planning committee discovered that the budget for renting off-site locations is depleted, there is no room in the student center , and there is no other campus space available to hold the event. In brief, there is no way to hold the event during this fiscal year.
9. Time
There are two types of time relationships on the CLAST. First, these relationships can be used to organize ideas or events happening before, now, or later. Secondly, time relationships can reflect how events relate to one another or how complete the process of the events is.
Example: Nancy joyfully read her acceptance letter to medical school. Afterward, she was less thrilled to review the tuition information.
Recognizing Relationships Within Sentences
When you are recognizing relationships within sentences, you are identifying the ways authors connect the ideas within their sentences.
Authors can explicitly tell you what this link is by using transition words.
OR
Authors can implicitly link ideas in their sentences and the reader must figure out what the relationship is.
There are nine ways authors can create relationships within sentences.
1. Addition
2. Clarification
3. Comparison
4. Contrast
5. Example
6. Location or Spatial Order
7. Cause and effect
8. Summary
9. Time
1. Addition
Authors link elements within their sentences by adding more items and ideas in addition relationships. In addition relationships, one idea or item is not emphasized as being more important than others. Elements joined together in a series are examples of addition relationships.
Example: In addition to her work with student organizations, Sam volunteers at a local shelter and works part time at the local pharmacy.
2. Clarification
Clarification within a sentence occurs when authors restate their point to promote understanding. If you can mentally insert the phrase "in other words" in front of a sentence element, the author is making some form of clarification.
Example: Sam abhors country living: she despises the silence on the dirt roads, she longs for her favorite coffee house, and she loathes the lack of shopping options.
3. Comparison
Authors make comparisons when two ideas or items have something in common. The author joins these two ideas or items so the reader recognizes the similarities between them.
Example: Like his opponent Paul, Adam began his campaign for student body president with a rally outside the student center.
4. Contrast
Authors contrast elements within sentences when these elements have differences between them. Authors can use contradictions or the opposition of ideas or items to make contrasting statements.
Example: Although Sam thought her work on the project was acceptable, her lab partners strongly disagreed and requested that she rewrite her section.
5. Example
Authors include examples in their sentences to provide a more concrete instance of an idea, event, or general statement they have made.
Example: Precious stones, including diamonds and emeralds, are found in numerous jewelry pieces kept at the Tower of London museum.
6. Location or Spatial Order
When authors relate one or more items or objects to each other or to the surrounding space, they are using location/spatial order. Often authors will use prepositional words to describe how items relate to one another when using location/spatial order.
Example: The Registrar\'s Office is next to the Admissions Office, on the first floor of that building.
7. Cause and Effect
In cause and effect sentences, one part of the sentence is the source and one part is the outcome. For a sentence to use cause and effect structure, the cause must logically precede the effect!
Example: If the student government does not approve our funding, then we will not be able to hold our appreciation banquet this year.
8. Summary
Authors often use summary structure to condense the main points and essential elements of their passage. A sentence level summary often uses and refers to information presented in preceding statements.
Example: In conclusion, the five reasons to cancel this year\'s event, as cited by the department, are found to be just and warranted.
9. Time
There are two types of time relationships. First, these relationships can be used to organize ideas or events happening before, now, or later. Secondly, time relationships can reflect how events relate to one another or how complete the process of the events is.
Example: Presently, our renovation plans have been placed on hold because the roof began leaking during the rainstorm last night.
Recognizing the Author\'s Tone
The tone of a passage is the manner in which authors express their feelings or attitude about their topic. The author\'s tone is revealed through word choice and sentence structure.
There are two things you can look for when you are discerning the author\'s tone.
1. What type of words did the author use?
Remember, words have both denotative (dictionary definitions) and connotative (implications suggested above and beyond the dictionary definitions) meanings. Authors influence their readers by the words they choose to describe and discuss their topic.
2. What is the author\'s attitude about the topic?
Tone is strongly influenced by the author\'s attitude regarding the topic. If authors dislike their topic, their negative attitude will be evident. If authors like their topic, their positive attitude will be evident.
Tone Words
Errors on tone questions are often the result of vocabulary difficulties. Students usually know the tone of the passage, but cannot select the proper word choice to describe it!
Organizational Patterns
It is important to remember that authors can use more than one organizational pattern within a passage.
Facts
Fact Example 1 The Consumer Price Index rose .5% this quarter. This is a statement of fact that can be proven true or false by consulting consumer spending data.
Fact Example 2 On July 4, 1976, the Tampa City Commissioners proclaimed, "The beautiful city of Tampa is the most patriotic city in the state of Florida." This is a statement of fact. Even though the quotation contains opinions (beautiful, most patriotic), you can verify that the quote was said on July 4, 1976 through public records of city commission meetings. Since you can verify the proclamation through objective methods it is a statement of fact.
Opinions
It is very important to know the following characteristics of statements of opinion.
1. Any statement that expresses the possibility or probability of an event that CANNOT be proven true or false through observation or data collection is an OPINION.
2. Any statement that concerns the future or future events is a statement of OPINION. This is true even if the statements seem probable. No one can know the future objectively; therefore, future statements are statements of opinion.
Opinion Example: Over the next 10 years, computer technology will have an increasingly important role in business transactions. Even though it is likely that this statement may prove true in the future, it CANNOT be proven true or false today. Since it cannot be proven true or false by objective means, it is a statement of opinion.
Author\'s Tone
Authors use tone to convey their message or point of view. The authors\' attitude about the topic will be evident by the tone of the passage. For example, if different authors wrote on the topic "sharks" you would be reading works with various tones. The author that fears sharks may have a distressed or malicious tone. The author that is a shark enthusiast may have a compassionate or enthusiastic tone. The author that only wants to tell you shark facts may have a detached or objective tone.
Tone Words
The following nouns and adjectives are commonly used to describe tone. It is important that you know the meanings of these words. This is not an all-inclusive list, but it is a good place to begin. Errors on tone questions are often the result of vocabulary difficulties. Students often know the tone of the passage, but cannot select the proper word to describe it!
abstruse absurd ambivalent amused
angry apathetic arrogant awe
bitter caustic cheerful comic
compassionate complex condescending critical
condemnation cruel cynical depressed
detached distressed dignified disapproval
earnest evasive excited farcical
formal gentle ghoulish hard
impassioned incredulous indignant intense
intimate ironic irreverent joyous
loving malicious mocking melancholy
nostalgic objective obsequious optimistic
outranged outspoken passionate pathetic
pessimistic playful reticent reverent
righteous sarcastic satirical sentimental
serious scornful solemn sympathetic
tragic uneasy unrealistic vindictive
Logical Inferences and Conclusions
When drawing inferences and conclusions you need to interact with the material you read. You need to pick up on the textual clues and messages the author presents as you attempt to discover the author\'s implied meaning. Authors give you clues about their implied meaning through their word choice and sentence structure.
You will need to use your own background knowledge and experience to make logical inferences and conclusions. When you add your knowledge with the facts presented by the author you can form logical conclusions and inferences. Do not be too concerned with the subtle difference between "inference" and "conclusion." These two terms are closely related and are often used interchangeably.
Fallacy List
1. Faulty cause and effect -an invalid assumption that one event is caused by or causes another.
2. Non sequitur-an inference or a conclusion that is not necessarily a logical result of the facts.
3. Begging the question-asserting as truth what is yet to be proven by the argument.
4. Circular logic-argumentation that merely restates what is stated or implied in the first part of the argument.
5. Hasty generalization-a conclusion based on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence.
6. Either/or-argumentation that limits the choices on an issue to two opposing positions.
7. Faulty analogy-an invalid comparison used to support a position.
8. Argument to the person -an attack on a person\'s character in order to discredit his/her position, rather than an attack on the position itself.
9. Argument to the people -an appeal to the emotions of the audience rather than an attempt to deal with the issue.
10. Bandwagon appeal-promotion of a position by asserting its popularity.
11. Red herring-the introduction of an irrelevant point to divert attention from the main issue.
Recognizing Fact and Opinion
Facts
There are two important details you must know about facts.
1. A fact can be either a true or a false statement.
2. A fact can be proven true or false through observation or data collection.
Opinions
Opinions are statements that deal with evaluations, probabilities, or attitudes that cannot be proven true or false. Opinions are subjective. Subjective statements are open to individual interpretations and they CANNOT be proven true or false through observation or data collection.
Recognizing Fact and Opinion
Facts
There are two important details you must know about facts.
1. A fact can be either a true or a false statement.
2. A fact can be proven true or false through observation or data collection.
Opinions
Opinions are statements that deal with evaluations, probabilities, or attitudes that cannot be proven true or false. Opinions are subjective. Subjective statements are open to individual interpretations and they CANNOT be proven true or false through observation or data collection.
Organizational Patterns
Facts
Fact Example 1 The Consumer Price Index rose .5% this quarter. This is a statement of fact that can be proven true or false by consulting consumer spending data.
Fact Example 2 On July 4, 1976, the Tampa City Commissioners proclaimed, "The beautiful city of Tampa is the most patriotic city in the state of Florida." This is a statement of fact. Even though the quotation contains opinions (beautiful, most patriotic), you can verify that the quote was said on July 4, 1976 through public records of city commission meetings. Since you can verify the proclamation through objective methods it is a statement of fact.
Opinions
It is very important to know the following characteristics of statements of opinion.
1. Any statement that expresses the possibility or probability of an event that CANNOT be proven true or false through observation or data collection is an OPINION.
2. Any statement that concerns the future or future events is a statement of OPINION. This is true even if the statements seem probable. No one can know the future objectively; therefore, future statements are statements of opinion.
Opinion Example: Over the next 10 years, computer technology will have an increasingly important role in business transactions. Even though it is likely that this statement may prove true in the future, it CANNOT be proven true or false today. Since it cannot be proven true or false by objective means, it is a statement of opinion.
Author\'s Tone
Authors use tone to convey their message or point of view. The authors\' attitude about the topic will be evident by the tone of the passage. For example, if different authors wrote on the topic "sharks" you would be reading works with various tones. The author that fears sharks may have a distressed or malicious tone. The author that is a shark enthusiast may have a compassionate or enthusiastic tone. The author that only wants to tell you shark facts may have a detached or objective tone.
Tone Words
The following nouns and adjectives are commonly used to describe tone. It is important that you know the meanings of these words. This is not an all-inclusive list, but it is a good place to begin. Errors on tone questions are often the result of vocabulary difficulties. Students often know the tone of the passage, but cannot select the proper word to describe it!
abstruse absurd ambivalent amused
angry apathetic arrogant awe
bitter caustic cheerful comic
compassionate complex condescending critical
condemnation cruel cynical depressed
detached distressed dignified disapproval
earnest evasive excited farcical
formal gentle ghoulish hard
impassioned incredulous indignant intense
intimate ironic irreverent joyous
loving malicious mocking melancholy
nostalgic objective obsequious optimistic
outranged outspoken passionate pathetic
pessimistic playful reticent reverent
righteous sarcastic satirical sentimental
serious scornful solemn sympathetic
tragic uneasy unrealistic vindictive
Logical Inferences and Conclusions
When drawing inferences and conclusions you need to interact with the material you read. You need to pick up on the textual clues and messages the author presents as you attempt to discover the author\'s implied meaning. Authors give you clues about their implied meaning through their word choice and sentence structure.
You will need to use your own background knowledge and experience to make logical inferences and conclusions. When you add your knowledge with the facts presented by the author you can form logical conclusions and inferences. Do not be too concerned with the subtle difference between "inference" and "conclusion." These two terms are closely related and are often used interchangeably.
Fallacy List
1. Faulty cause and effect (in Latin: post hoc, ergo propter hoc-"after this, therefore because of this")-an invalid assumption that one event is caused by or causes another.
2. Non sequitur-an inference or a conclusion that is not necessarily a logical result of the facts.
3. Begging the question-asserting as truth what is yet to be proven by the argument.
4. Circular logic-argumentation that merely restates what is stated or implied in the first part of the argument.
5. Hasty generalization-a conclusion based on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence.
6. Either/or-argumentation that limits the choices on an issue to two opposing positions.
7. Faulty analogy-an invalid comparison used to support a position.
8. Argument to the person (in Latin: argumentum ad hominem-"argument to the man")-an attack on a person\'s character in order to discredit his/her position, rather than an attack on the position itself.
9. Argument to the people (in Latin: argumentum ad populum-an appeal to the emotions of the audience rather than an attempt to deal with the issue.
10. Bandwagon appeal-promotion of a position by asserting its popularity.
11. Red herring-the introduction of an irrelevant point to divert attention from the main issue.
Detecting Bias
Bias is the author\'s predisposition to influence the reader. Authors can influence a reader by presenting a slanted view of material or by presenting an emotional appeal.
Bias can be either positive, which is in favor of something, or negative, which is against something. When an author presents a biased view you will notice a lack of opposing viewpoints.
Bias can either be directly stated or suggested by the author.
Revealing Bias
There are six ways that authors can reveal their bias.
1. Slanted language and evidence
2. Highly emotional statements
3. Name-calling
4. Stereotyping and overgeneralization
5. Assumptions based on weak or inaccurate information
6. Contradictions or ideas or terms
Revealing Bias
There are six ways that authors can reveal their bias. Click on any of the following to learn more about it!
1. Slanted language and evidence
2. Highly emotional statements
3. Name-calling
4. Stereotyping and overgeneralization
5. Assumptions based on weak or inaccurate information
6. Contradictions or ideas or terms
Slanted language and evidence
Authors will reveal bias in this case by using words, images, and/or information that only show the positive or negative side of the argument or discussion. This type of writing shows bias FOR or AGAINST a particular event, group, idea, concept, plan or person.
Highly emotional statements
Authors will reveal bias in this case by using language that appeals to strong emotions, not to logic. Tone words that have strong connotations about approval or disapproval are often used in this type of writing. Highly emotional statements can show bias either FOR or AGAINST a particular event group, idea, concept, plan or person.
Name-calling
Authors will reveal bias in this case by using pejorative terms and negative names to indicate disapproval. Examples include words like evil, witch, lousy, liar, failure, and wretched. This type of writing shows a bias AGAINST a particular event group, idea, concept, plan or person.
Stereotyping and overgeneralization
Authors will reveal bias in this case by using statements that indicate that ALL members of one group are the same as ONE of its members. This type of writing takes the actions or behaviors of an individual and applies them to an entire group. Stereotyping and overgeneralization can be used to show bias FOR or AGAINST.
Assumptions based on weak or inaccurate information
Authors will reveal bias in this case by using arguments that assume a critical or crucial point is a given truth. These authors neglect to include proof or information that is needed to support their arguments or position. These assumptions can be used to show bias FOR or AGAINST.
Contradiction of ideas or terms
Authors will reveal this bias when they either directly or indirectly give information about the opposing viewpoint. Authors sometimes wish to ignore opposing viewpoints when they are attempting to persuade or discuss a topic. However, when authors try to vaguely remark on an opposing viewpoint or try to ignore them all together they sometimes create contradictory statements. The authors contradict their own assumptions and statements without fully realizing it. This contradictions can show bias FOR or AGAINST.
For example: Clearly, Fellini deserves his place as a great filmmaker although his work now seems derivative and dated.
In this sentence, the author shows a negative bias against Fellini\'s work. The author refers to his work as "derivative and dated" but begins by calling Fellini a "great filmmaker." The combination of negative and positive language demonstrates the contradiction within this sentence.
Identifying Logical Inferences and Conclusions
An inference is an educated guess based upon what is presented in a passage. Making an inference requires you to go beyond what was directly stated. When you make an inference you evaluate what the author has suggested through his/her writing. This inference helps you form a conclusion about what the author is implying.
Inference and conclusion questions are multiple choice with four answer choices. These questions are based on your reading of a passage and can be phrased in various ways.
Examples:
The author of this passage implies (suggests) that_______________
From this passage, you could infer (conclude, predict) that ________
The writer of this passage probably has (has never, feels, supports, is) ___
__________ was probably caused by (the result of)
Back to Critical Comprehension Questions
Organizational Patterns
Facts
Fact Example 1 The Consumer Price Index rose .5% this quarter. This is a statement of fact that can be proven true or false by consulting consumer spending data.
Fact Example 2 On July 4, 1976, the Tampa City Commissioners proclaimed, "The beautiful city of Tampa is the most patriotic city in the state of Florida." This is a statement of fact. Even though the quotation contains opinions (beautiful, most patriotic), you can verify that the quote was said on July 4, 1976 through public records of city commission meetings. Since you can verify the proclamation through objective methods it is a statement of fact.
Opinions
It is very important to know the following characteristics of statements of opinion.
1. Any statement that expresses the possibility or probability of an event that CANNOT be proven true or false through observation or data collection is an OPINION.
2. Any statement that concerns the future or future events is a statement of OPINION. This is true even if the statements seem probable. No one can know the future objectively; therefore, future statements are statements of opinion.
Opinion Example: Over the next 10 years, computer technology will have an increasingly important role in business transactions. Even though it is likely that this statement may prove true in the future, it CANNOT be proven true or false today. Since it cannot be proven true or false by objective means, it is a statement of opinion.
Author\'s Tone
Authors use tone to convey their message or point of view. The authors\' attitude about the topic will be evident by the tone of the passage. For example, if different authors wrote on the topic "sharks" you would be reading works with various tones. The author that fears sharks may have a distressed or malicious tone. The author that is a shark enthusiast may have a compassionate or enthusiastic tone. The author that only wants to tell you shark facts may have a detached or objective tone.
Tone Words
The following nouns and adjectives are commonly used to describe tone. It is important that you know the meanings of these words. This is not an all-inclusive list, but it is a good place to begin. Errors on tone questions are often the result of vocabulary difficulties. Students often know the tone of the passage, but cannot select the proper word to describe it!
abstruse absurd ambivalent amused
angry apathetic arrogant awe
bitter caustic cheerful comic
compassionate complex condescending critical
condemnation cruel cynical depressed
detached distressed dignified disapproval
earnest evasive excited farcical
formal gentle ghoulish hard
impassioned incredulous indignant intense
intimate ironic irreverent joyous
loving malicious mocking melancholy
nostalgic objective obsequious optimistic
outranged outspoken passionate pathetic
pessimistic playful reticent reverent
righteous sarcastic satirical sentimental
serious scornful solemn sympathetic
tragic uneasy unrealistic vindictive
Logical Inferences and Conclusions
When drawing inferences and conclusions you need to interact with the material you read. You need to pick up on the textual clues and messages the author presents as you attempt to discover the author\'s implied meaning. Authors give you clues about their implied meaning through their word choice and sentence structure.
You will need to use your own background knowledge and experience to make logical inferences and conclusions. When you add your knowledge with the facts presented by the author you can form logical conclusions and inferences. Do not be too concerned with the subtle difference between "inference" and "conclusion." These two terms are closely related and are often used interchangeably.
Fallacy List
1. Faulty cause and effect (in Latin: post hoc, ergo propter hoc-"after this, therefore because of this")-an invalid assumption that one event is caused by or causes another.
2. Non sequitur-an inference or a conclusion that is not necessarily a logical result of the facts.
3. Begging the question-asserting as truth what is yet to be proven by the argument.
4. Circular logic-argumentation that merely restates what is stated or implied in the first part of the argument.
5. Hasty generalization-a conclusion based on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence.
6. Either/or-argumentation that limits the choices on an issue to two opposing positions.
7. Faulty analogy-an invalid comparison used to support a position.
8. Argument to the person (in Latin: argumentum ad hominem-"argument to the man")-an attack on a person\'s character in order to discredit his/her position, rather than an attack on the position itself.
9. Argument to the people (in Latin: argumentum ad populum-an appeal to the emotions of the audience rather than an attempt to deal with the issue.
10. Bandwagon appeal-promotion of a position by asserting its popularity.
11. Red herring-the introduction of an irrelevant point to divert attention from the main issue.
Recognizing Valid and lnvalid Arguments
When authors use logical reasoning in their passages, they are said to contain valid arguments. These arguments are based upon facts and accurate details. Conversely, when authors use illogical reasoning in their passages, they are said to contain invalid arguments. Invalid arguments are based on some type of faulty reasoning, called fallacies.
Recognizing Valid and lnvalid Arguments
Fallacies that Rely on Irrelevant Issues
and/or Emotional Appeals
1. Ad Hominem (argument to the person)
2. Ad Populum (argument to the people)
3. Bandwagon Appeal
4. Red Herring
1. Ad Hominem (argument to the person)
Authors use ad hominem when they shift the focus of an argument away from the issues and towards the authors\' opponent. Ad hominem arguments often contain personal commentary and personal attacks.
Example: It is obvious that Merle has no business serving as a member of the child welfare committee. He cannot even maintain his own household--his wife just left him.
2. Ad Populum (argument to the people)
The ad populum fallacy occurs when authors evade the issues and appeal to the emotions of the people-the reader in this case. The authors\' appeal is made to allegiances and beliefs that people hold dear.
Example: If you are a real American you will exercise your right to vote.
3. Bandwagon Appeal
The bandwagon appeal appears when authors suggest that everyone agrees with it, does it, or believes it. Rather than provide solid reasons to support claims, the author merely suggests that since everyone else is in agreement it is valid support-BUT IT IS NOT!
Example: I\'m going to get that new CD recorder because everyone I know has it.
4. Red Herring
Authors sometime introduce irrelevant issues to distract the reader\'s attention away from the real issues. This is the red herring fallacy. You can easily remember the "red herring" fallacy if you remember how the term originated. During foxhunts, servants would drag a smoked herring fish across the trail of the foxes. The fish scent would divert the hunting dogs attention away from the foxes and lengthened the "thrill of the chase" for the hunters. Likewise, when authors use red herring fallacy, they divert your attention away from the real issues.
Example: It is wasteful to enact laws against drunk drivers when so many murders are walking our streets.
Recognizing Valid and lnvalid Arguments
Fallacies
The CLAST covers eleven fallacies that can be divided into two groups:
1. Fallacies that rely on irrelevant issues and/or emotional appeals
2. Fallacies that rely on faulty evidence
Recognizing Valid and lnvalid Arguments
Fallacies that Rely on Faulty Evidence
5. Hasty Generalization
6. Either/or
7. Circular Reasoning
8. Begging the Question
9. False Analogy
10. Post hoc ergo propter hoc (faulty cause and effect)
11. Non Sequitur
5. Hasty Generalization
When authors jump to a conclusion and ignore or overlook important facts, they have made a hasty generalization. Hasty generalizations often result in stereotypical statements that lack factual support and over generalize the actions of one (or a few) to reflect an entire group.
Example: I have met two of the group\'s four ambassadors and they were terribly rude. The other two ambassadors are probably rude and ill mannered, too.
6. Either/or
Authors use the either/or fallacy when they present an argument that can only conclude in one of two ways. The two conclusion choices given are complete opposites. The authors ignore the possibility of any other outcomes. By limiting the results to two possibilities, the authors have eliminated a range of facts that could result in other conclusions.
Example: People who didn\'t contribute to our toy drive obviously don\'t care about children.
7. Circular Reasoning
Authors use circular reasoning when the repeat their argument in different words to make their supporting statement. By restating the point in different words, the argument does not move forward-it just goes around in a circle. Hence, this fallacy is called circular reasoning.
Example: Sports utility vehicles continue to be popular because consumers like them.
8. Begging the Question
Begging the question is a form of circular reasoning (see fallacy #7 above for more information). When authors "beg the question" they assert that facts are true when they have not proven them to be true. Begging the question fallacy is used to evade the real issues by drawing a conclusion without properly reviewing the facts. In the following example, notice how the author makes the assumption that a form is useless without providing any proof.
Example: All useless university forms like this one should be eliminated.
9. False Analogy
An analogy is an extended comparison of things that share qualities. A valid analogy provides examples that highlight the similarities between the compared items. When authors use analogies to clarify their points, they must carefully construct the analogy so the similarities are evident. False analogies occur when the comparison between the objects does not make sense. False analogies often happen when an author has not completely thought through the analogy and neglects to consider qualities NOT suitable for comparison. In the following example, think of all the ways children are NOT like puppies. The author ignores these differences.
Example: Very young children are like puppies-trusting, affectionate, and dependent; therefore, they should be trained using the same system of punishment and reward that is so successful in puppy obedience training.
10. Post hoc ergo propter hoc (faulty cause and effect)
When one event precedes another, the first event can be viewed as the cause of the second event. However, not all relationships are causal, and often the fact that one event precedes another is merely coincidental. When authors provide no other proof for the causal relationship between events, and assume that since one event preceded another the first event is the cause of the second, they have created a post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy. Post hoc ergo propter hoc is Latin for -"after this, therefore because of this."
Example: The past three student body presidents were accepted into law school. Andy, our current student body president, will therefore get into law school next year.
11. Non Sequitur
Non sequitur is a Latin phrase meaning "it doesn\'t follow." When authors make a conclusion that is not logically linked to the arguments they presented, they have created a non sequitur. Some non sequitur fallacies are difficult to detect. In the following example the fact that Dr. Smith is a famous researcher and archeologist does not mean that she will be an effective teacher. Individuals can have a wealth of subject area knowledge yet not be able to teach and communicate this knowledge to others.
Example: Dr. Smith is a world-renowned archeologist and researcher. She was even featured on a cable special because of her impressive research work. She will be a wonderful teacher for our archeology class next semester.
Determining Word Meanings in Context
YOU MUST DEFINE THE WORD AS IT IS USED IN THE PASSAGE.
Do not be fooled by "correct" definitions for the word that do NOT define it as it is used in the passage.
For example, you may have a clear understanding of the word "book." It is a noun that refers to a ream of paper bound together in some fashion. However, in the passage they may be referring to the verb "book" that means to record charges against someone on an official police docket. If you do not carefully read the word as it is used in the passage, you can easily choose an incorrect answer.
In addition to determining what the word means, you also may be asked to determine a suitable synonym or antonym for the word.
Important Facts About Determining Word Meanings
There are various kinds of context clues you can use to determine the meaning of unknown words. The two main types are semantic and syntactic clues.
Semantic clues suggest the meaning of the unknown word.
Look at the sentence for such clues as antonyms or synonyms that appear in the sentence.
Authors can also briefly define the word within the sentence, contrast the word with another, compare the word with another, provide examples of the word, or give you brief scenarios that describe the word.
Syntactic clues provide you with grammatical information about the unknown word.
Knowing the unknown word\'s part of speech helps you limit possible choices.
For our "book" example above, knowing the unknown word in the sentence is a verb would help you eliminate the noun definition of "book."
Both of these kinds of context clues will help you determine the proper definition for the unknown word.
Literal Comprehension Questions
Literal comprehension questions require students to identify information that is directly stated in a reading selection.
Literal comprehension questions ask students to recall specific facts that were introduced in the reading passage. For example, students may be asked to recall steps in a process, site the author\'s reasons, or find specific dates, names, or places.
There are three types of literal comprehension questions .
Recognizing Main Ideas
Recognizing Supporting Details
Determining Word Meanings in Context
Recognizing Main Ideas
It is important to know that the main idea can also be referred to as:
• the central idea,
• the central point,
• the controlling idea,
• the author\'s main point.
There are three key questions that can help you determine the main idea of a passage.
Who or what is this passage about? ( What is the topic?)
What is the author trying to tell me about the topic?
After determining this, choose the sentence that best expresses the main idea.
Does the information in the passage support the sentence you chose?
You need to evaluate if all or most of the supporting statements support the main idea chosen.
If the supporting statements do support the main idea you chose, then you chose correctly!
Important Facts About Main Ideas
Be careful when choosing your main idea answer. Some commonly found "distracters" include the following:
Partially correct choices that only capture part of the main idea presented.
Choices that contain additional information not found ANYWHERE in the passage.
Choices that allude to the main idea, but that do NOT accurately state it.
Recognizing Supporting Details
Supporting details are all of the facts, examples, and ideas the author uses to help develop his/her main idea. The supporting details clarify and strengthen the author\'s argument or position.
Important Facts About Supporting Details
There are some important things you need to remember about supporting details.
Carefully read the question to determine what you are being asked to do!
As stated before, you may be asked to determine which supporting detail was NOT mentioned. Such questions often take the form of "All of the following statements except…"
A supporting detail that was located in the passage may be included in your answer choices--but it may have no relationship to the question you are being asked.
The supporting details do not have to be directly quoted from the passage.
Accurate summaries or paraphrases are acceptable. You must carefully consider the answer choices in light of the information you read in the passage.
You may also be given a supporting detail that was NOT in the passage, but that may make sense based upon the information given. Be careful to use only the information given in the passage when evaluating supporting details.
Determining Word Meanings in Context
YOU MUST DEFINE THE WORD AS IT IS USED IN THE PASSAGE.
Do not be fooled by "correct" definitions for the word that do NOT define it as it is used in the passage.
For example, you may have a clear understanding of the word "book." It is a noun that refers to a ream of paper bound together in some fashion. However, in the passage they may be referring to the verb "book" that means to record charges against someone on an official police docket. If you do not carefully read the word as it is used in the passage, you can easily choose an incorrect answer.
In addition to determining what the word means, you also may be asked to determine a suitable synonym or antonym for the word.
Important Facts About Determining Word Meanings
There are various kinds of context clues you can use to determine the meaning of unknown words. The two main types are semantic and syntactic clues.
Semantic clues suggest the meaning of the unknown word.
Look at the sentence for such clues as antonyms or synonyms that appear in the sentence.
Authors can also briefly define the word within the sentence, contrast the word with another, compare the word with another, provide examples of the word, or give you brief scenarios that describe the word.
Syntactic clues provide you with grammatical information about the unknown word.
Knowing the unknown word\'s part of speech helps you limit possible choices.
For our "book" example above, knowing the unknown word in the sentence is a verb would help you eliminate the noun definition of "book."
Both of these kinds of context clues will help you determine the proper definition for the unknown word.
Literal Comprehension Questions
There are three types of literal comprehension questions .
Recognizing Main Ideas
Recognizing Supporting Details
Determining Word Meanings in Context
Critical Comprehension Questions
Critical comprehension questions require students to use inferences, implications, tone, relationships, and arguments to find the answers.
There are nine types of critical comprehension questions .
Recognizing the Author’s Purpose
Identifying Author’s Organizational Pattern
Distinguishing Between Facts and Opinions
Detecting Bias
Recognizing the Author’s Tone
Recognizing Relationships Within Sentences
Recognizing Relationships Between Sentences
Recognizing Valid Arguments
Identifying Logical Inferences and Conclusions
